Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists and the dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP)/GLP-1 receptor agonist tirzepatide (Mounjaro) are widely prescribed for treatment of type 2 diabetes and weight management (see Table 1), but they delay gastric emptying and commonly cause nausea and vomiting. Gastroparesis and bowel obstruction (ileus) have also been reported with their use.

Diet, exercise, and weight loss can improve glycemic control, but almost all patients with type 2 diabetes require antihyperglycemic drug therapy. Treating to a target A1C of <7% while minimizing hypoglycemia is recommended to prevent microvascular complications of diabetes (retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy). An A1C target of <8% may be appropriate for some older patients.

The FDA has approved tirzepatide (Mounjaro – Lilly), a peptide hormone with activity at both glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors, to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes. Tirzepatide, which is injected subcutaneously once weekly, is the first dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist to become available in the US. Selective GIP receptor agonists are not available in the US; GLP-1 receptor agonists have been available for years.

The FDA has approved two additional doses (3 mg and 4.5 mg) of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist dulaglutide (Trulicity – Lilly) for treatment of type 2 diabetes in adults. Dulaglutide has been available in 0.75- and 1.5-mg doses for years.

Diet, exercise, and weight loss can improve glycemic control, but almost all patients with type 2 diabetes eventually require drug therapy. Treating to a glycated hemoglobin (A1C) concentration of <7% can prevent microvascular complications (retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy), but whether it prevents macrovascular complications and death is unclear. An A1C target of <8% may be appropriate for older patients and those with underlying cardiovascular disease (CVD), a history of severe hypoglycemia, diabetes-related complications, a limited life expectancy, or a long duration of disease.

An oral formulation of the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist semaglutide (Rybelsus – Novo Nordisk) has been approved by the FDA for once-daily treatment of type 2 diabetes in adults. Semaglutide, which has been available in a subcutaneously-injected formulation (Ozempic) since 2017, is the first GLP-1 receptor agonist to become available for oral administration; the 4 other GLP-1 receptor agonists currently available in the US are administered by subcutaneous (SC) injection.

Since 2008, because of safety concerns, the FDA has mandated that long-term cardiovascular outcomes trials be conducted for all new drugs for type 2 diabetes. Reductions in the incidence of macrovascular complications in these trials with some sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists in patients at risk for cardiovascular disease (see Table 1) have led to new recommendations.

The FDA has approved semaglutide (Ozempic – Novo Nordisk), a long-acting injectable GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) receptor agonist, for once-weekly treatment of adults with type 2 diabetes. It is the sixth GLP-1 receptor agonist to be approved in the US.

For many years, the goal of drug therapy for most patients with type 2 diabetes has been to achieve and maintain an A1C of <7%. Achieving that goal can prevent microvascular complications (diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy), but whether it prevents macrovascular complications (myocardial infarction [MI], stroke) has been less clear. The FDA now requires that cardiovascular safety studies be performed for all new drugs for type 2 diabetes.1 Recent findings that some of the newer second-line drugs for type 2 diabetes have cardiovascular benefits have led to new interest in the cardiovascular efficacy and safety of all antidiabetic drugs.

Per capita spending on prescription drugs in the US is higher than in other industrialized nations, including Canada.

The FDA has approved lixisenatide (Sanofi), a short-acting injectable GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) receptor agonist, for once-daily treatment of adults with type 2 diabetes, both alone (Adlyxin) and in a fixed-ratio combination with insulin glargine (Soliqua 100/33). Lixisenatide has been available since 2013 in many other countries as Lyxumia. It is the fifth GLP-1 receptor agonist to be approved in the US.

The goal of drug therapy for type 2 diabetes is to achieve and maintain a near-normal glycated hemoglobin (A1C) concentration without inducing hypoglycemia; the target is generally an A1C of ≤7%. Treating to this target has been shown to prevent microvascular complications (retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy), but whether it prevents macrovascular outcomes is unclear. An A1C target of <8% may be appropriate for older patients and those with underlying cardiovascular disease, a history of severe hypoglycemia, diabetes-related complications or comorbidities, or a long duration of disease.

Two new injectable GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) receptor agonists, dulaglutide (Trulicity [trū li si tee] – Lilly) and albiglutide (Tanzeum [tan' zee um] – GSK), have been approved by the FDA for once-weekly treatment of type 2 diabetes. Other available GLP-1 receptor agonists include exenatide, which is approved for injection twice daily (Byetta) or once weekly (Bydureon), and liraglutide (Victoza), which is injected once daily.